10.2. Signal Concepts

First, every signal has a name. These names all begin with the three characters SIG. For example, SIGABRT is the abort signal that is generated when a process calls the abort function. SIGALRM is the alarm signal that is generated when the timer set by the alarm function goes off. Version 7 had 15 different signals; SVR4 and 4.4BSD both have 31 different signals. FreeBSD 5.2.1, Mac OS X 10.3, and Linux 2.4.22 support 31 different signals, whereas Solaris 9 supports 38 different signals. Both Linux and Solaris, however, support additional application-defined signals as real-time extensions (the real-time extensions in POSIX aren't covered in this book; refer to Gallmeister [1995] for more information).

These names are all defined by positive integer constants (the signal number) in the header <signal.h>.

Implementations actually define the individual signals in an alternate header file, but this header file is included by <signal.h>. It is considered bad form for the kernel to include header files meant for user-level applications, so if the applications and the kernel both need the same definitions, the information is placed in a kernel header file that is then included by the user-level header file. Thus, both FreeBSD 5.2.1 and Mac OS X 10.3 define the signals in <sys/signal.h>. Linux 2.4.22 defines the signals in <bits/signum.h>, and Solaris 9 defines them in <sys/iso/signal_iso.h>.

No signal has a signal number of 0. We'll see in Section 10.9 that the kill function uses the signal number of 0 for a special case. POSIX.1 calls this value the null signal.

Numerous conditions can generate a signal.

• The terminal-generated signals occur when users press certain terminal keys. Pressing the DELETE key on the terminal (or Control-C on many systems) normally causes the interrupt signal (SIGINT) to be generated. This is how to stop a runaway program. (We'll see in Chapter 18 how this signal can be mapped to any character on the terminal.)

• Hardware exceptions generate signals: divide by 0, invalid memory reference, and the like. These conditions are usually detected by the hardware, and the kernel is notified. The kernel then generates the appropriate signal for the process that was running at the time the condition occurred. For example, SIGSEGV is generated for a process that executes an invalid memory reference.

• The kill(2) function allows a process to send any signal to another process or process group. Naturally, there are limitations: we have to be the owner of the process that we're sending the signal to, or we have to be the superuser.

• The kill(1) command allows us to send signals to other processes. This program is just an interface to the kill function. This command is often used to terminate a runaway background process.

• Software conditions can generate signals when something happens about which the process should be notified. These aren't hardware-generated conditions (as is the divide-by-0 condition), but software conditions. Examples are SIGURG (generated when out-of-band data arrives over a network connection), SIGPIPE (generated when a process writes to a pipe after the reader of the pipe has terminated), and SIGALRM (generated when an alarm clock set by the process expires).

Signals are classic examples of asynchronous events. Signals occur at what appear to be random times to the process. The process can't simply test a variable (such as errno) to see whether a signal has occurred; instead, the process has to tell the kernel "if and when this signal occurs, do the following."

We can tell the kernel to do one of three things when a signal occurs. We call this the disposition of the signal, or the action associated with a signal.

Figure 10.1. UNIX System signals

Name	Description	ISO C	SUS	FreeBSD 5.2.1	Linux 2.4.22	Mac OS X 10.3	Solaris 9	Default action
SIGABRT	abnormal termination (abort)	•	•	•	•	•	•	terminate+core
SIGALRM	timer expired (alarm)		•	•	•	•	•	terminate
SIGBUS	hardware fault		•	•	•	•	•	terminate+core
SIGCANCEL	threads library internal use						•	ignore
SIGCHLD	change in status of child		•	•	•	•	•	ignore
SIGCONT	continue stopped process		•	•	•	•	•	continue/ignore
SIGEMT	hardware fault			•	•	•	•	terminate+core
SIGFPE	arithmetic exception	•	•	•	•	•	•	terminate+core
SIGFREEZE	checkpoint freeze						•	ignore
SIGHUP	hangup		•	•	•	•	•	terminate
SIGILL	illegal instruction	•	•	•	•	•	•	terminate+core
SIGINFO	status request from keyboard			•		•		ignore
SIGINT	terminal interrupt character	•	•	•	•	•	•	terminate
SIGIO	asynchronous I/O			•	•	•	•	terminate/ignore
SIGIOT	hardware fault			•	•	•	•	terminate+core
SIGKILL	termination		•	•	•	•	•	terminate
SIGLWP	threads library internal use						•	ignore
SIGPIPE	write to pipe with no readers		•	•	•	•	•	terminate
SIGPOLL	pollable event (poll)		XSI		•		•	terminate
SIGPROF	profiling time alarm (setitimer)		XSI	•	•	•	•	terminate
SIGPWR	power fail/restart				•		•	terminate/ignore
SIGQUIT	terminal quit character		•	•	•	•	•	terminate+core
SIGSEGV	invalid memory reference	•	•	•	•	•	•	terminate+core
SIGSTKFLT	coprocessor stack fault				•			terminate
SIGSTOP	stop		•	•	•	•	•	stop process
SIGSYS	invalid system call		XSI	•	•	•	•	terminate+core
SIGTERM	termination	•	•	•	•	•	•	terminate
SIGTHAW	checkpoint thaw						•	ignore
SIGTRAP	hardware fault		XSI	•	•	•	•	terminate+core
SIGTSTP	terminal stop character		•	•	•	•	•	stop process
SIGTTIN	background read from control tty		•	•	•	•	•	stop process
SIGTTOU	background write to control tty		•	•	•	•	•	stop process
SIGURG	urgent condition (sockets)		•	•	•	•	•	ignore
SIGUSR1	user-defined signal		•	•	•	•	•	terminate
SIGUSR2	user-defined signal		•	•	•	•	•	terminate
SIGVTALRM	virtual time alarm (setitimer)		XSI	•	•	•	•	terminate
SIGWAITING	threads library internal use						•	ignore
SIGWINCH	terminal window size change			•	•	•	•	ignore
SIGXCPU	CPU limit exceeded (setrlimit)		XSI	•	•	•	•	terminate+core/ignore
SIGXFSZ	file size limit exceeded (setrlimit)		XSI	•	•	•	•	terminate+core/ignore
SIGXRES	resource control exceeded						•	ignore

Figure 10.1 lists the names of all the signals, an indication of which systems support the signal, and the default action for the signal. The SUS column contains • if the signal is defined as part of the base POSIX.1 specification and XSI if it is defined as an XSI extension to the base.

When the default action is labeled "terminate+core," it means that a memory image of the process is left in the file named core of the current working directory of the process. (Because the file is named core, it shows how long this feature has been part of the UNIX System.) This file can be used with most UNIX System debuggers to examine the state of the process at the time it terminated.

The generation of the core file is an implementation feature of most versions of the UNIX System. Although this feature is not part of POSIX.1, it is mentioned as a potential implementation-specific action in the Single UNIX Specification's XSI extension.

The name of the core file varies among implementations. On FreeBSD 5.2.1, for example, the core file is named cmdname.core, where cmdname is the name of the command corresponding to the process that received the signal. On Mac OS X 10.3, the core file is named core.pid, where pid is the ID of the process that received the signal. (These systems allow the core filename to be configured via a sysctl parameter.)

Most implementations leave the core file in the current working directory of the corresponding process; Mac OS X places all core files in /cores instead.

The core file will not be generated if (a) the process was set-user-ID and the current user is not the owner of the program file, or (b) the process was set-group-ID and the current user is not the group owner of the file, (c) the user does not have permission to write in the current working directory, (d) the file already exists and the user does not have permission to write to it, or (e) the file is too big (recall the RLIMIT_CORE limit in Section 7.11). The permissions of the core file (assuming that the file doesn't already exist) are usually user-read and user-write, although Mac OS X sets only user-read.

In Figure 10.1, the signals with a description "hardware fault" correspond to implementation-defined hardware faults. Many of these names are taken from the original PDP-11 implementation of the UNIX System. Check your system's manuals to determine exactly what type of error these signals correspond to.

We now describe each of these signals in more detail.

SIGABRT	This signal is generated by calling the abort function (Section 10.17). The process terminates abnormally.
SIGALRM	This signal is generated when a timer set with the alarm function expires (see Section 10.10 for more details). This signal is also generated when an interval timer set by the setitimer(2) function expires.
SIGBUS	This indicates an implementation-defined hardware fault. Implementations usually generate this signal on certain types of memory faults, as we describe in Section 14.9.
SIGCANCEL	This signal is used internally by the Solaris threads library. It is not meant for general use.
SIGCHLD	Whenever a process terminates or stops, the SIGCHLD signal is sent to the parent. By default, this signal is ignored, so the parent must catch this signal if it wants to be notified whenever a child's status changes. The normal action in the signal-catching function is to call one of the wait functions to fetch the child's process ID and termination status. Earlier releases of System V had a similar signal named SIGCLD (without the H). The semantics of this signal were different from those of other signals, and as far back as SVR2, the manual page strongly discouraged its use in new programs. (Strangely enough, this warning disappeared in the SVR3 and SVR4 versions of the manual page.) Applications should use the standard SIGCHLD signal, but be aware that many systems define SIGCLD to be the same as SIGCHLD for backward compatibility. If you maintain software that uses SIGCLD, you need to check your system's manual page to see what semantics it follows. We discuss these two signals in Section 10.7.
SIGCONT	This job-control signal is sent to a stopped process when it is continued. The default action is to continue a stopped process, but to ignore the signal if the process wasn't stopped. A full-screen editor, for example, might catch this signal and use the signal handler to make a note to redraw the terminal screen. See Section 10.20 for additional details.
SIGEMT	This indicates an implementation-defined hardware fault. The name EMT comes from the PDP-11 "emulator trap" instruction. Not all platforms support this signal. On Linux, for example, SIGEMT is supported only for selected architectures, such as SPARC, MIPS, and PA-RISC.
SIGFPE	This signals an arithmetic exception, such as divide by 0, floating-point overflow, and so on.
SIGFREEZE	This signal is defined only by Solaris. It is used to notify processes that need to take special action before freezing the system state, such as might happen when a system goes into hibernation or suspended mode.
SIGHUP	This signal is sent to the controlling process (session leader) associated with a controlling terminal if a disconnect is detected by the terminal interface. Referring to Figure 9.12, we see that the signal is sent to the process pointed to by the s_leader field in the session structure. This signal is generated for this condition only if the terminal's CLOCAL flag is not set. (The CLOCAL flag for a terminal is set if the attached terminal is local. The flag tells the terminal driver to ignore all modem status lines. We describe how to set this flag in Chapter 18.) Note that the session leader that receives this signal may be in the background; see Figure 9.7 for an example. This differs from the normal terminal-generated signals (interrupt, quit, and suspend), which are always delivered to the foreground process group. This signal is also generated if the session leader terminates. In this case, the signal is sent to each process in the foreground process group. This signal is commonly used to notify daemon processes (Chapter 13) to reread their configuration files. The reason SIGHUP is chosen for this is that a daemon should not have a controlling terminal and would normally never receive this signal.
SIGILL	This signal indicates that the process has executed an illegal hardware instruction. 4.3BSD generated this signal from the abort function. SIGABRT is now used for this.
SIGINFO	This BSD signal is generated by the terminal driver when we type the status key (often Control-T). This signal is sent to all processes in the foreground process group (refer to Figure 9.8). This signal normally causes status information on processes in the foreground process group to be displayed on the terminal. Linux doesn't provide support for SIGINFO except on the Alpha platform, where it is defined to be the same value as SIGPWR.
SIGINT	This signal is generated by the terminal driver when we type the interrupt key (often DELETE or Control-C). This signal is sent to all processes in the foreground process group (refer to Figure 9.8). This signal is often used to terminate a runaway program, especially when it's generating a lot of unwanted output on the screen.
SIGIO	This signal indicates an asynchronous I/O event. We discuss it in Section 14.6.2. In Figure 10.1, we labeled the default action for SIGIO as either "terminate" or "ignore." Unfortunately, the default depends on the system. Under System V, SIGIO is identical to SIGPOLL, so its default action is to terminate the process. Under BSD, the default is to ignore the signal. Linux 2.4.22 and Solaris 9 define SIGIO to be the same value as SIGPOLL, so the default behavior is to terminate the process. On FreeBSD 5.2.1 and Mac OS X 10.3, the default is to ignore the signal.
SIGIOT	This indicates an implementation-defined hardware fault. The name IOT comes from the PDP-11 mnemonic for the "input/output TRAP" instruction. Earlier versions of System V generated this signal from the abort function. SIGABRT is now used for this. On FreeBSD 5.2.1, Linux 2.4.22, Mac OS X 10.3, and Solaris 9, SIGIOT is defined to be the same value as SIGABRT.
SIGKILL	This signal is one of the two that can't be caught or ignored. It provides the system administrator with a sure way to kill any process.
SIGLWP	This signal is used internally by the Solaris threads library, and is not available for general use.
SIGPIPE	If we write to a pipeline but the reader has terminated, SIGPIPE is generated. We describe pipes in Section 15.2. This signal is also generated when a process writes to a socket of type SOCK_STREAM that is no longer connected. We describe sockets in Chapter 16.
SIGPOLL	This signal can be generated when a specific event occurs on a pollable device. We describe this signal with the poll function in Section 14.5.2. SIGPOLL originated with SVR3, and loosely corresponds to the BSD SIGIO and SIGURG signals. On Linux and Solaris, SIGPOLL is defined to have the same value as SIGIO.
SIGPROF	This signal is generated when a profiling interval timer set by the setitimer(2) function expires.
SIGPWR	This signal is system dependent. Its main use is on a system that has an uninterruptible power supply (UPS). If power fails, the UPS takes over and the software can usually be notified. Nothing needs to be done at this point, as the system continues running on battery power. But if the battery gets low (if the power is off for an extended period), the software is usually notified again; at this point, it behooves the system to shut everything down within about 1530 seconds. This is when SIGPWR should be sent. Most systems have the process that is notified of the low-battery condition send the SIGPWR signal to the init process, and init handles the shutdown. Linux 2.4.22 and Solaris 9 have entries in the inittab file for this purpose: powerfail and powerwait (or powerokwait). In Figure 10.1, we labeled the default action for SIGPWR as either "terminate" or "ignore." Unfortunately, the default depends on the system. The default on Linux is to terminate the process. On Solaris, the signal is ignored by default.
SIGQUIT	This signal is generated by the terminal driver when we type the terminal quit key (often Control-backslash). This signal is sent to all processes in the foreground process group (refer to Figure 9.8). This signal not only terminates the foreground process group (as does SIGINT), but also generates a core file.
SIGSEGV	This signal indicates that the process has made an invalid memory reference. The name SEGV stands for "segmentation violation."
SIGSTKFLT	This signal is defined only by Linux. This signal showed up in the earliest versions of Linux, intended to be used for stack faults taken by the math coprocessor. This signal is not generated by the kernel, but remains for backward compatibility.
SIGSTOP	This job-control signal stops a process. It is like the interactive stop signal (SIGTSTP), but SIGSTOP cannot be caught or ignored.
SIGSYS	This signals an invalid system call. Somehow, the process executed a machine instruction that the kernel thought was a system call, but the parameter with the instruction that indicates the type of system call was invalid. This might happen if you build a program that uses a new system call and you then try to run the same binary on an older version of the operating system where the system call doesn't exist.
SIGTERM	This is the termination signal sent by the kill(1) command by default.
SIGTHAW	This signal is defined only by Solaris and is used to notify processes that need to take special action when the system resumes operation after being suspended.
SIGTRAP	This indicates an implementation-defined hardware fault. The signal name comes from the PDP-11 TRAP instruction. Implementations often use this signal to transfer control to a debugger when a breakpoint instruction is executed.
SIGTSTP	This interactive stop signal is generated by the terminal driver when we type the terminal suspend key (often Control-Z). This signal is sent to all processes in the foreground process group (refer to Figure 9.8). Unfortunately, the term stop has different meanings. When discussing job control and signals, we talk about stopping and continuing jobs. The terminal driver, however, has historically used the term stop to refer to stopping and starting the terminal output using the Control-S and Control-Q characters. Therefore, the terminal driver calls the character that generates the interactive stop signal the suspend character, not the stop character.
SIGTTIN	This signal is generated by the terminal driver when a process in a background process group tries to read from its controlling terminal. (Refer to the discussion of this topic in Section 9.8.) As special cases, if either (a) the reading process is ignoring or blocking this signal or (b) the process group of the reading process is orphaned, then the signal is not generated; instead, the read operation returns an error with errno set to EIO.
SIGTTOU	This signal is generated by the terminal driver when a process in a background process group tries to write to its controlling terminal. (Refer to the discussion of this topic in Section 9.8.) Unlike the SIGTTIN signal just described, a process has a choice of allowing background writes to the controlling terminal. We describe how to change this option in Chapter 18. If background writes are not allowed, then like the SIGTTIN signal, there are two special cases: if either (a) the writing process is ignoring or blocking this signal or (b) the process group of the writing process is orphaned, then the signal is not generated; instead, the write operation returns an error with errno set to EIO. Regardless of whether background writes are allowed, certain terminal operations (other than writing) can also generate the SIGTTOU signal: tcsetattr, tcsendbreak, tcdrain, tcflush, tcflow, and tcsetpgrp. We describe these terminal operations in Chapter 18.
SIGURG	This signal notifies the process that an urgent condition has occurred. This signal is optionally generated when out-of-band data is received on a network connection.
SIGUSR1	This is a user-defined signal, for use in application programs.
SIGUSR2	This is another user-defined signal, similar to SIGUSR1, for use in application programs.
SIGVTALRM	This signal is generated when a virtual interval timer set by the setitimer(2) function expires.
SIGWAITING	This signal is used internally by the Solaris threads library, and is not available for general use.
SIGWINCH	The kernel maintains the size of the window associated with each terminal and pseudo terminal. A process can get and set the window size with the ioctl function, which we describe in Section 18.12. If a process changes the window size from its previous value using the ioctl set-window-size command, the kernel generates the SIGWINCH signal for the foreground process group.
SIGXCPU	The Single UNIX Specification supports the concept of resource limits as an XSI extension; refer to Section 7.11. If the process exceeds its soft CPU time limit, the SIGXCPU signal is generated. In Figure 10.1, we labeled the default action for SIGXCPU as either "terminate with a core file" or "ignore." Unfortunately, the default depends on the operating system. Linux 2.4.22 and Solaris 9 support a default action of terminate with a core file, whereas FreeBSD 5.2.1 and Mac OS X 10.3 support a default action of ignore. The Single UNIX Specification requires that the default action be to terminate the process abnormally. Whether a core file is generated is left up to the implementation.
SIGXFSZ	This signal is generated if the process exceeds its soft file size limit; refer to Section 7.11. Just as with SIGXCPU, the default action taken with SIGXFSZ depends on the operating system. On Linux 2.4.22 and Solaris 9, the default is to terminate the process and create a core file. On FreeBSD 5.2.1 and Mac OS X 10.3, the default is to be ignored. The Single UNIX Specification requires that the default action be to terminate the process abnormally. Whether a core file is generated is left up to the implementation.
SIGXRES	This signal is defined only by Solaris. This signal is optionally used to notify processes that have exceeded a preconfigured resource value. The Solaris resource control mechanism is a general facility for controlling the use of shared resources among independent application sets.