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8.11. Changing User IDs and Group IDs

In the UNIX System, privileges, such as being able to change the system's notion of the current date, and access control, such as being able to read or write a particular file, are based on user and group IDs. When our programs need additional privileges or need to gain access to resources that they currently aren't allowed to access, they need to change their user or group ID to an ID that has the appropriate privilege or access. Similarly, when our programs need to lower their privileges or prevent access to certain resources, they do so by changing either their user ID or group ID to an ID without the privilege or ability access to the resource.

In general, we try to use the least-privilege model when we design our applications. Following this model, our programs should use the least privilege necessary to accomplish any given task. This reduces the likelihood that security can be compromised by a malicious user trying to trick our programs into using their privileges in unintended ways.

We can set the real user ID and effective user ID with the setuid function. Similarly, we can set the real group ID and the effective group ID with the setgid function.

#include <unistd.h>

int setuid(uid_t uid);

int setgid(gid_t gid);

Both return: 0 if OK, 1 on error


There are rules for who can change the IDs. Let's consider only the user ID for now. (Everything we describe for the user ID also applies to the group ID.)

  1. If the process has superuser privileges, the setuid function sets the real user ID, effective user ID, and saved set-user-ID to uid.

  2. If the process does not have superuser privileges, but uid equals either the real user ID or the saved set-user-ID, setuid sets only the effective user ID to uid. The real user ID and the saved set-user-ID are not changed.

  3. If neither of these two conditions is true, errno is set to EPERM, and 1 is returned.

Here, we are assuming that _POSIX_SAVED_IDS is true. If this feature isn't provided, then delete all preceding references to the saved set-user-ID.

The saved IDs are a mandatory feature in the 2001 version of POSIX.1. They used to be optional in older versions of POSIX. To see whether an implementation supports this feature, an application can test for the constant _POSIX_SAVED_IDS at compile time or call sysconf with the _SC_SAVED_IDS argument at runtime.

We can make a few statements about the three user IDs that the kernel maintains.

  1. Only a superuser process can change the real user ID. Normally, the real user ID is set by the login(1) program when we log in and never changes. Because login is a superuser process, it sets all three user IDs when it calls setuid.

  2. The effective user ID is set by the exec functions only if the set-user-ID bit is set for the program file. If the set-user-ID bit is not set, the exec functions leave the effective user ID as its current value. We can call setuid at any time to set the effective user ID to either the real user ID or the saved set-user-ID. Naturally, we can't set the effective user ID to any random value.

  3. The saved set-user-ID is copied from the effective user ID by exec. If the file's set-user-ID bit is set, this copy is saved after exec stores the effective user ID from the file's user ID.

Figure 8.18 summarizes the various ways these three user IDs can be changed.

Figure 8.18. Ways to change the three user IDs

ID

exec

setuid(uid)

set-user-ID bit off

set-user-ID bit on

superuser

unprivileged user

real user ID

unchanged

unchanged

set to uid

unchanged

effective user ID

unchanged

set from user ID of program file

set to uid

set to uid

saved set-user ID

copied from effective user ID

copied from effective user ID

set to uid

unchanged


Note that we can obtain only the current value of the real user ID and the effective user ID with the functions getuid and geteuid from Section 8.2. We can't obtain the current value of the saved set-user-ID.

Example

To see the utility of the saved set-user-ID feature, let's examine the operation of a program that uses it. We'll look at the man(1) program, which is used to display online manual pages. The man program can be installed either set-user-ID or set-group-ID to a specific user or group, usually one reserved for man itself. The man program can be made to read and possibly overwrite files in locations that are chosen either through a configuration file (usually /etc/man.config or /etc/manpath.config) or using a command-line option.

The man program might have to execute several other commands to process the files containing the manual page to be displayed. To prevent being tricked into running the wrong commands or overwriting the wrong files, the man command has to switch between two sets of privileges: those of the user running the man command and those of the user that owns the man executable file. The following steps take place.

  1. Assuming that the man program file is owned by the user name man and has its set-user-ID bit set, when we exec it, we have


                    real user ID = our user ID
             effective user ID = man
          saved set-user-ID = man

  2. The man program accesses the required configuration files and manual pages. These files are owned by the user name man, but because the effective user ID is man, file access is allowed.

  3. Before man runs any command on our behalf, it calls setuid(getuid()). Because we are not a superuser process, this changes only the effective user ID. We have


              real user ID = our user ID (unchanged)
       effective user ID = our user ID
     saved set-user-ID = man (unchanged)

    Now the man process is running with our user ID as its effective user ID. This means that we can access only the files to which we have normal access. We have no additional permissions. It can safely execute any filter on our behalf.

  4. When the filter is done, man calls setuid(euid), where euid is the numerical user ID for the user name man. (This was saved by man by calling geteuid.) This call is allowed because the argument to setuid equals the saved set-user-ID. (This is why we need the saved set-user-ID.) Now we have


              real user ID = our user ID (unchanged)
       effective user ID = man
     saved set-user-ID = man (unchanged)

  5. The man program can now operate on its files, as its effective user ID is man.

By using the saved set-user-ID in this fashion, we can use the extra privileges granted to us by the set-user-ID of the program file at the beginning of the process and at the end of the process. In between, however, the process runs with our normal permissions. If we weren't able to switch back to the saved set-user-ID at the end, we might be tempted to retain the extra permissions the whole time we were running (which is asking for trouble).

Let's look at what happens if man spawns a shell for us while it is running. (The shell is spawned using fork and exec.) Because the real user ID and the effective user ID are both our normal user ID (step 3), the shell has no extra permissions. The shell can't access the saved set-user-ID that is set to man while man is running, because the saved set-user-ID for the shell is copied from the effective user ID by exec. So in the child process that does the exec, all three user IDs are our normal user ID.

Our description of how man uses the setuid function is not correct if the program is set-user-ID to root, because a call to setuid with superuser privileges sets all three user IDs. For the example to work as described, we need setuid to set only the effective user ID.

setreuid and setregid Functions

Historically, BSD supported the swapping of the real user ID and the effective user ID with the setreuid function.

   #include <unistd.h>

   int setreuid(uid_t ruid, uid_t euid);

   int setregid(gid_t rgid, gid_t egid);

Both return: 0 if OK, 1 on error


We can supply a value of 1 for any of the arguments to indicate that the corresponding ID should remain unchanged.

The rule is simple: an unprivileged user can always swap between the real user ID and the effective user ID. This allows a set-user-ID program to swap to the user's normal permissions and swap back again later for set-user-ID operations. When the saved set-user-ID feature was introduced with POSIX.1, the rule was enhanced to also allow an unprivileged user to set its effective user ID to its saved set-user-ID.

Both setreuid and setregid are XSI extensions in the Single UNIX Specification. As such, all UNIX System implementations are expected to provide support for them.

4.3BSD didn't have the saved set-user-ID feature described earlier. It used setreuid and setregid instead. This allowed an unprivileged user to swap back and forth between the two values. Be aware, however, that when programs that used this feature spawned a shell, they had to set the real user ID to the normal user ID before the exec. If they didn't do this, the real user ID could be privileged (from the swap done by setreuid) and the shell process could call setreuid to swap the two and assume the permissions of the more privileged user. As a defensive programming measure to solve this problem, programs set both the real user ID and the effective user ID to the normal user ID before the call to exec in the child.

seteuid and setegid Functions

POSIX.1 includes the two functions seteuid and setegid. These functions are similar to setuid and setgid, but only the effective user ID or effective group ID is changed.

#include <unistd.h>

int seteuid(uid_t uid);

int setegid(gid_t gid);

Both return: 0 if OK, 1 on error


An unprivileged user can set its effective user ID to either its real user ID or its saved set-user-ID. For a privileged user, only the effective user ID is set to uid. (This differs from the setuid function, which changes all three user IDs.)

Figure 8.19 summarizes all the functions that we've described here that modify the three user IDs.

Figure 8.19. Summary of all the functions that set the various user IDs

[View full size image]


Group IDs

Everything that we've said so far in this section also applies in a similar fashion to group IDs. The supplementary group IDs are not affected by setgid, setregid, or setegid.

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